The suitable research aims to ascertain the optimum dose of mineral fertilizers and methods of soil processing and preparation for successful flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) cultivation in the semi-arid conditions of the Almaty Region, Kazakhstan, focusing on achieving high crop productivity with good seed quality. Agrochemical investigations also employed modern devices and widely accepted methods. Studying parameters, such as total humus, labile humus, nitrate nitrogen, mobile phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, soil composition density, structural-aggregate composition, and moisture supply, ensued using specific techniques. The study observed an enhancement in nitrate nitrogen content in the soil, from an initial level of 11–19 mg/kg to 36–91 mg/kg during flax harvest in all experimental variants. On the contrary, the mobile phosphorus exhibited a decline in the soil from the beginning of crop vegetation until harvest; however, determining the available phosphorus in different practices showed medium, high, higher, and very high. Moreover, a decline in exchangeable potassium content (from 344–446 mg/kg to 175–215 mg/kg) emerged during the flax crop across all the experimental variants. The application of mineral fertilizers NPK at the rate of 60:60:30, with the application of a growth regulator Ecorost at the rate of 2 liters per ton of seeds, and employing a flat-cut treatment (10–12 cm) on light chestnut soil in the semi-arid zone with super dry season of Almaty Region, resulted in the highest flax yield in cv. Karabalykskaya (410 kg/ha).

Keywords: Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), mineral fertilizers, plowing, flat-cut tillage, zero tillage, nitrate nitrogen, mobile phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, productive moisture, productivity

Key findings: The presented research comprising flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) culture, used different doses of mineral fertilizers with varying tillage. The effect of tillage methods and application of mineral fertilizers on agrophysical and agrochemical indicators of soil and linseed yield were promising.

Maize (Zea mays L.) field experiments commenced during crop season 2022 at the Experimental Farm, Al-Mahnawiya, Extension Training Center, Babylon, Iraq. The study examined the impacts of water stress tolerance on four maize cultivars’ AP2 gene expression, physiology, and yield. The experiment used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a split-plot arrangement and three replications. Four irrigation treatments applied on the main plots comprised 1) full irrigation (control), 2) withholding irrigation during elongation (Gs-V7), 3) non-irrigation during grain-filling (Gs-R2), and 4) suppressing irrigation during both elongation and grain-filling (Gs-V7+R2). The subplots included four maize cultivars: Furat, Dijlah, ZP, and Konsens. The results showed that withholding water during maize plants’ elongation stage (GS-V7) significantly reduced leaf water and chlorophyll content. However, withholding irrigation increased peroxidase and catalase enzyme concentrations significantly. Suppressing irrigation at the elongation stage (GS-V7) and the elongation and grain-filling stages (GS-V7+R2) resulted in a considerable drop in cycle threshold (CT) values, with average CT values of 31.68 and 31.69 cycles, respectively. The AP2 gene expression and CT values indicated a negative correlation. The study found that the AP2 gene increases maize’s water stress tolerance, and the gene expression in maize cultivar “Furat” confirms this. Maize cultivar Furat achieved recommendations for cultivation in desert regions because of its superior ability to survive and adapt.

Keywords: Maize (Zea mays L.), AP2 gene expression, water stress tolerance, irrigation regimes, physiological traits, chlorophyll content, peroxidase and catalase enzymes, grain yield

Key findings: Based on the presented study, the AP2 gene presence and expression enhances maize (Zea mays L.) genotype water stress tolerance. In the maize cultivar Furat, the said AP2 gene expression was favorable, which increases its water stress tolerance and, thus, attained recommendations as an ideal maize cultivar for desert areas.

Research on appropriate leaf positions in diverse sugarcane genotypes is crucial due to the significance of leaf anatomical characteristics in determining plant adaptability. This study aimed to compare the anatomical traits among the varied leaf positions within a tiller and tillers under normal conditions. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) setup used four replications. Four commercial canes, two wild types, and three F₁ interspecific hybrids underwent examination on leaf thickness (LT), cuticle thickness percentage (CT%), vertical length bulliform cell percentage (VBC%), and stomatal crypt depth percentage (SCD%) across 1^st to 5^th leaf positions on main, first, and second tillers. The 1^st to 5^th leaf positions had no differences when compared within the tiller in commercial and wild cultivars for LT, CT%, VBC%, and SCD% traits, and F₁ hybrids demonstrated no variation in CT% and VBC% traits. The LT, SCD, and CT of commercial canes had a high proportion, and VBC had a slender shape and a large size. Inversely, the wild type had a low LT but high SCD and CT and a circular shape with a small size VBC. Leaf anatomy in the F₁ hybrid resembled the wild type, and leaf positions 1^st to 3^rd were not different among tillers, but the 4^th and 5^th leaf positions differed. Therefore, anatomical trait collection should continue among 1^st to 3^rd leaf positions for all sugarcane types. Moreover, the 1^st to 3^rd leaf positions within the 1^st and 2^nd tillers can represent the anatomical performance of the main tiller in commercial cane cultivars.

Keywords: Leaf position, leaf divergence, bulliform cells, stomatal crypt depth, leaf sequences

Key findings: The 1^st to 3^rd leaf positions for all sugarcane types can help to investigate drought resistance traits in the leaf anatomy. There were no differences among tiller sequences of 1^st to 3^rd leaf positions in commercial cane cultivars.

The evaluation of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) cultivar leaves belonging to different exotic and local genotypes for physiological traits, viz., chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid pigments, and concentration of total pigments transpired spectrophotometrically. The exotic sunflower genotypes used in the study consisted of 9859 (USA), 30837 (Australia), 33673 (France), 9843 and 30835 (Turkey), 9853 and 9848 (Russia), and a local cultivar Jakhongir (Uzbekistan). In the budding phase, the exotic accession 33673 (France) showed higher contents of chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, and total pigments (17.8 ± 0.55, 6.61 ± 0.40, 5.82 ± 0.19, and 24.47 ± 0.95 mg/ml, respectively). For the flowering phase, exotic genotype 30835 (Turkey) excelled for chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, and total pigments concentration (17.10 ± 0.37, 6.31 ± 0.24, 5.42 ± 0.24, and 23.41 ± 0.55 mg/ml, respectively). In the ripening phase, the amount of chlorophyll a and carotenoids were 16.64 ± 0.84 and 5.82 ± 0.12 mg/ml, respectively, in genotype 9853 (Russia), and chlorophyll b and total pigments correspond to 6.04 ± 0.33 mg/ml and 21.19 ± 0.57 mg/ml in the local cultivar Jakhongir. No significant quantitative variations were evident for nitrogen content and total protein content in sunflower genotype seeds. However, higher values of total protein content (21.8%) manifested in the exotic genotypes, i.e., 30837 (Australia), 33673 (France), and 9848 (Russia). During 2021, the seed oil content ranged from 31.9% ± 0.51% to 54.4% ± 0.87%, while the highest oil content (54.4% ± 0.87%) emerged in genotype 9853 (Russia). In 2022 planting, the sunflower seeds’ highest fat content percentage surfaced in sample 9848 (Russia), 53.99% ± 0.14%. In addition, genotype 9853 (Russia) also contained various micro-macro elements, i.e., Mg, Al, Ca, Fe, Sr, and Ba, compared with the rest of the sunflower genotypes.

Keywords: Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), spectrophotometer, chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, general pigment, protein, budding, flowering and ripening phases, micro-macro elements

Key findings: The sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) exotic and local genotypes revealed varied values of physiological traits, viz., chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid pigments, and concentration of total pigments analyzed spectrophotometrically. Nitrogen and total protein content showed no significant differences among all the sunflower genotypes.

The experiment progressed to evaluate the effects of time nitrogen fertilizer application on the senescence of durum wheat and its association with grain yield and its components. The experimental treatments, set up in a split-plot design, used five durum wheat cultivars (Adnham, Grecale, Duma, Sardar, Svevo) as the main plots, and the time nitrogen fertilizer application (100% tillering, 100% stem elongation, and 50% tillering + 50% stem elongation stages) under two locations in Northern Iraqi conditions. The results of this study indicated that late senescence cultivars (Grecale and Svevo) produced the highest flowering date (123.89 and 123.61 days), number of spikes/m² (267.2 and 265.6 spikes), number of grains/10 spikes (330.5 and 323.6 grains), grain yield g/m² (532.2 and 511.6 g), and harvest index% (38.72% and 39.86%). Moreover, the time of nitrogen fertilizer application at the tillering stage (early application) influenced most of the studied traits. Finally, extending photosynthesis capacity during the grain-filling phases by delaying the rate of senescence could be a better approach to improving the grain yield of wheat cultivars.

Keywords: Durum wheat (Triticum durum desf.), cultivars, senescence rate (SR), time nitrogen fertilizer application (TNFA), grain yield (GY)

Key findings: Leaf senescence is a developmental process controlled by genetic and environmental factors, such as the dose and time of nitrogen fertilizer application. Together, stay-green and earlysenescence traits can be good strategies to improve the wheat grain yield. The stay-green trait can maintain the uptake and remobilize the nutrients, while the early senescence can avoid the stress conditions during grain-filling stages in wheat crops.

A field trial on green onion crops in the autumn of 2020 transpired at a private farm in the District Al-Saniyah, Al-Diwaniyah Governorate, Iraq. The presented study aimed at characterizing green onion (Allium cepa L.) plants with NPK fertilization and foliar application of hornwort extract for growth and yield traits. In this experiment, the first factor comprised three NPK levels (0, 50%, and 100%) of NPK (150:100:150 kg ha^-1) recommended fertilizer added to the soil, while the second factor included the foliar application of hornwort extract with two different concentrations (0, 20 ml L^-1). The experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with factorial arrangement had three replications. Consequently, the recommended dose of NPK (100%) and spraying hornwort extract at 20 ml L^-1 revealed a significant increase in the studied traits, i.e., plant height, length of the longest tubular leaf, number of leaves, fresh weight of tubular leaves, number of bulbs per plant, weight of the bulb, the diameter of the bulb, leaf chlorophyll content, bulb carbohydrate content, leaf carotenoid content, and plant yield. The interactions of both factors also showed a favorable effect on the mentioned traits in green onion.

Keywords: Onion (Allium cepa L.), NPK levels, Ceratophyllum demersum L. extract, growth traits, yield variables, biochemical traits, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, carbohydrate content

Key findings: The recommended NPK fertilization dose resulted in better vegetative growth, yield, and biochemical traits in green onion plants. Also, the exogenous application of the hornwort extract (20 ml L^-1) provided better effects for all the quantitative features. Furthermore, the combined application and interaction of both factors with the highest doses caused favorable impacts on green onion plant characteristics.

Biostimulants (nano fertilizers, algal extract) are synthetic or natural compounds for application to seeds, plants, and soil to increase crops, particularly onion yields. These substances cause changes in vital structural processes to influence plant growth through improved tolerance to abiotic stresses and enhance seed and grain yield and quality. The presented study aims to determine if biostimulants beneficially increase onions’ vegetative growth, harvest, and quality of onions (Allium cepa L.). A randomized complete block design with three replications helped compare various rates of Nano NPK fertilization (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 g/L Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract, 1.0 g/L mineral NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract, 1.0 g/L mineral NPK, 1.0 g/L Nano NPK, and 0.5 g/L algae extract) with the control treatment (spraying distilled water only). The results showed as the Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract levels decreased, all studied parameters gradually declined. Foliar application of Nano NPK 1.0 g/L combined with 0.5 g/L algae recorded the highest significant effects, followed by 1.0 g/L mineral NPK + 0.5 g/L algae and 0.8 g/L Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae compared with the control. The highest values of bulb diameter (10.1 cm/plant), plant height (108.7 cm/plant), plant fresh weight (254.7 g/plant), and fresh yield (25.67 t/ha) emerged with foliar application of Nano NPK 1.0 g/L combined with 0.5 g/L algae, and the lowest values, obtained from the control treatment, were 4.2 cm/plant, 62.3 cm/plant, 100.23 g/plant, and 10.09 t/ha, respectively. The results suggested that using the algae extract combined with nano fertilizer treatment as a biostimulant will maximize onion growth parameters, yield production, and nutrient contents.

Keywords: Onion (Allium cepa L.), vegetative growth, nanotechnology, NPK fertilization, algae extract, nutrient content and yield

Key findings: Applying nanofertilizers in conjunction with the algae extracts’ usage as a biostimulant is crucial for maximizing the growth characteristics, yield production, and nutrient contents of onions.

For the rational use of rainfed lands in Southeast Kazakhstan, the practical study aimed to determine the influence of different cultivation methods on the water-physical properties of the soil. The results revealed that, on average, for two years, the reserve of productive moisture in the ground during the spring with plowing at 20–22 cm was 127.8–146.4 mm, with minimal tillage at 8–10 cm (132.3–157.0 mm), and with zero tillage (122.2–140.8 mm) for all studied crops. With insufficient rainfall in summer, the moisture reserve decreased to 21.5–26.2 mm with plowing, 23.5–28.0 mm with minimal tillage, and 27.8–37.6 mm with zero tillage. In the studied crops, the soil density in the arable soil layer (0–30 cm) showed significant variations depending on the methods of soil cultivation. In spring, the soil was in a loose and weakly compacted state (1.17–1.22 g/cm³), and during harvesting, it increased and became dense (1.29–1.32 g/cm³), especially with zero tillage. Soil tillage methods provided the best structural aggregate condition (58%–71%) during the growing season of the studied crops of agronomically valuable aggregates (0.25–10 mm). However, the maximum content of structural aggregates (69%–71%) was evident with zero tillage by sowing safflower, spring barley, and Sudan grass. It indicates the excellent aggregate state of the soil under natural conditions with these crops. However, its minimum amount (58%) occurred with plowing (20–22 cm) under safflower. The water-resistant aggregate content was highest in no-tillage variants of the studied crops, varying between 17.6%–18.9%. With plowing, the water resistance of aggregates decreased to 13.1% under different crops. Over two years of research, the highest average yield of spring barley (2.42 t/ha) emerged with minimal tillage, while the lowest grain yield of Sudan grass (0.67 t/ha) came from plowing. As a result, the highest grain yields of spring barley, peas, and safflower emanated with minimal tillage, while in the Sudanese grass, with zero tillage.

Keywords: Conventional tillage, minimal tillage, no-tillage, soil structure, spring barley, peas, safflower, Sudan grass, crop yield

Key findings: The introduction of minimal tillage into production on the rainfed lands of Southeast Kazakhstan increased the grain yield of spring barley, peas, safflower, and Sudanese grass while preserving the supply of productive moisture in the soil. The formation of grain harvest largely depended on weather conditions during the growing season of the studied crops.

Coffea arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica’s coexistence in one location or proximity areas could promote interspecific pollination. However, information related to floral phenology and flower structure of these three coffee species is insufficient. This research aimed to identify the divergence of flowering phenology and flower morphometrics among C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica. Flowering phenology observations continued daily from July to October 2020, extending to two locations of parapatric populations of three coffee species. Flower morphometric measurements ensued at the peak period of flowering. The results showed some co-anthesis periods among the three coffee species, with C. liberica starting to flower early. Moreover, C. liberica var liberica had the broadest flower diameter and the highest petal number, whereas the tetraploid C. arabica had the lowest. Consequences of flowering phenology and flower structure on a pre-zygotic barrier of spontaneous, as well as, controlled interspecific hybridization among the three coffee species were the discussion focus.

Keywords: Coffea, interspecific crossing, flowering phenology, flower structure, pre-zygotic barrier

Key findings: Co-anthesis events occurred during the peak flowering periods in sympatric or parapatric populations of three coffee species (C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica). Therefore, interspecific hybridization using freshly collected pollen is feasible. These findings could enrich information on a pre-zygotic barrier among C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica species, especially in Indonesia. Breeders, in turn, could utilize the results to manage their future work on interspecific hybridization among these three coffee species.

Orchid mycorrhizal fungi (OMF) are vital biocontrol agents, especially for Odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV). The promising study helped identify the mycorrhiza isolate from native tropical orchids and determine its potential as a biocontrol. Sample collection of healthy roots of Phalaenopsis amabilis emanated in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, carrying out molecular identification with rDNA-ITS amplification using a set of universal primers ITS1 and ITS4. In vivo, antagonist tests began by inoculating viruses and mycorrhiza to determine the effect of growth and induction of secondary metabolites. The result showed one isolate of Trichoderma sp. associated with the molecular analysis has amplified the ITS1-5.8S-ITS4 section by 600–750 bp DNA. The sequenced products revealed insertion and substitution occurrences, which may have caused the variance by strain diversity and potential severity. Indonesian isolates have undergone speciation and separation from other isolates by a substantial distance. The considerable effects were the increase in leaf length, leaf width, root length, leaf count, the number of roots, fresh weight, and a lowering of the virus content. The analysis of the plant growth parameters and virus concentrations provided significant differences among the treatments inoculated with orchid mycorrhiza (Mycorrhiza [M], Mycorrhiza + Virus [MV], and Virus + Mycorrhiza [VM]) and those without orchid mycorrhiza inoculation (Control [C] and Virus [V]). The orchid resistance suggested that the virus infecting plant leaves contain more phenolic chemicals. This study is the first-ever report of the Trichoderma sp. isolated from native tropical orchids in Indonesia.

Keywords: Antagonistic test, biocontrol, orchid mycorrhiza fungi, Phalaenopsis amabilis, phenolic chemicals, rDNA-ITS

Key findings: Molecular characterization of mycorrhizal isolates on the roots of Phalaenopsis amabilis from Yogyakarta, Indonesia, based on rDNA-ITS has a DNA product size of 600–750 bp located on ITS1-5.8S-ITS4, which is a Trichoderma sp. The phylogenetic tree reconstruction showed the isolate has undergone speciation. The results of the mycorrhizal antagonist test against ORSV infection revealed considerable growth of leaf length, width, root length, number of leaves, root volume, fresh weight, and phenolic chemicals.