The experiment progressed to evaluate the effects of time nitrogen fertilizer application on the senescence of durum wheat and its association with grain yield and its components. The experimental treatments, set up in a split-plot design, used five durum wheat cultivars (Adnham, Grecale, Duma, Sardar, Svevo) as the main plots, and the time nitrogen fertilizer application (100% tillering, 100% stem elongation, and 50% tillering + 50% stem elongation stages) under two locations in Northern Iraqi conditions. The results of this study indicated that late senescence cultivars (Grecale and Svevo) produced the highest flowering date (123.89 and 123.61 days), number of spikes/m² (267.2 and 265.6 spikes), number of grains/10 spikes (330.5 and 323.6 grains), grain yield g/m² (532.2 and 511.6 g), and harvest index% (38.72% and 39.86%). Moreover, the time of nitrogen fertilizer application at the tillering stage (early application) influenced most of the studied traits. Finally, extending photosynthesis capacity during the grain-filling phases by delaying the rate of senescence could be a better approach to improving the grain yield of wheat cultivars.

Keywords: Durum wheat (Triticum durum desf.), cultivars, senescence rate (SR), time nitrogen fertilizer application (TNFA), grain yield (GY)

Key findings: Leaf senescence is a developmental process controlled by genetic and environmental factors, such as the dose and time of nitrogen fertilizer application. Together, stay-green and earlysenescence traits can be good strategies to improve the wheat grain yield. The stay-green trait can maintain the uptake and remobilize the nutrients, while the early senescence can avoid the stress conditions during grain-filling stages in wheat crops.

A field trial on green onion crops in the autumn of 2020 transpired at a private farm in the District Al-Saniyah, Al-Diwaniyah Governorate, Iraq. The presented study aimed at characterizing green onion (Allium cepa L.) plants with NPK fertilization and foliar application of hornwort extract for growth and yield traits. In this experiment, the first factor comprised three NPK levels (0, 50%, and 100%) of NPK (150:100:150 kg ha^-1) recommended fertilizer added to the soil, while the second factor included the foliar application of hornwort extract with two different concentrations (0, 20 ml L^-1). The experiment in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with factorial arrangement had three replications. Consequently, the recommended dose of NPK (100%) and spraying hornwort extract at 20 ml L^-1 revealed a significant increase in the studied traits, i.e., plant height, length of the longest tubular leaf, number of leaves, fresh weight of tubular leaves, number of bulbs per plant, weight of the bulb, the diameter of the bulb, leaf chlorophyll content, bulb carbohydrate content, leaf carotenoid content, and plant yield. The interactions of both factors also showed a favorable effect on the mentioned traits in green onion.

Keywords: Onion (Allium cepa L.), NPK levels, Ceratophyllum demersum L. extract, growth traits, yield variables, biochemical traits, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, carbohydrate content

Key findings: The recommended NPK fertilization dose resulted in better vegetative growth, yield, and biochemical traits in green onion plants. Also, the exogenous application of the hornwort extract (20 ml L^-1) provided better effects for all the quantitative features. Furthermore, the combined application and interaction of both factors with the highest doses caused favorable impacts on green onion plant characteristics.

Biostimulants (nano fertilizers, algal extract) are synthetic or natural compounds for application to seeds, plants, and soil to increase crops, particularly onion yields. These substances cause changes in vital structural processes to influence plant growth through improved tolerance to abiotic stresses and enhance seed and grain yield and quality. The presented study aims to determine if biostimulants beneficially increase onions’ vegetative growth, harvest, and quality of onions (Allium cepa L.). A randomized complete block design with three replications helped compare various rates of Nano NPK fertilization (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 g/L Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract, 1.0 g/L mineral NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract, 1.0 g/L mineral NPK, 1.0 g/L Nano NPK, and 0.5 g/L algae extract) with the control treatment (spraying distilled water only). The results showed as the Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae extract levels decreased, all studied parameters gradually declined. Foliar application of Nano NPK 1.0 g/L combined with 0.5 g/L algae recorded the highest significant effects, followed by 1.0 g/L mineral NPK + 0.5 g/L algae and 0.8 g/L Nano NPK + 0.5 g/L algae compared with the control. The highest values of bulb diameter (10.1 cm/plant), plant height (108.7 cm/plant), plant fresh weight (254.7 g/plant), and fresh yield (25.67 t/ha) emerged with foliar application of Nano NPK 1.0 g/L combined with 0.5 g/L algae, and the lowest values, obtained from the control treatment, were 4.2 cm/plant, 62.3 cm/plant, 100.23 g/plant, and 10.09 t/ha, respectively. The results suggested that using the algae extract combined with nano fertilizer treatment as a biostimulant will maximize onion growth parameters, yield production, and nutrient contents.

Keywords: Onion (Allium cepa L.), vegetative growth, nanotechnology, NPK fertilization, algae extract, nutrient content and yield

Key findings: Applying nanofertilizers in conjunction with the algae extracts’ usage as a biostimulant is crucial for maximizing the growth characteristics, yield production, and nutrient contents of onions.

For the rational use of rainfed lands in Southeast Kazakhstan, the practical study aimed to determine the influence of different cultivation methods on the water-physical properties of the soil. The results revealed that, on average, for two years, the reserve of productive moisture in the ground during the spring with plowing at 20–22 cm was 127.8–146.4 mm, with minimal tillage at 8–10 cm (132.3–157.0 mm), and with zero tillage (122.2–140.8 mm) for all studied crops. With insufficient rainfall in summer, the moisture reserve decreased to 21.5–26.2 mm with plowing, 23.5–28.0 mm with minimal tillage, and 27.8–37.6 mm with zero tillage. In the studied crops, the soil density in the arable soil layer (0–30 cm) showed significant variations depending on the methods of soil cultivation. In spring, the soil was in a loose and weakly compacted state (1.17–1.22 g/cm³), and during harvesting, it increased and became dense (1.29–1.32 g/cm³), especially with zero tillage. Soil tillage methods provided the best structural aggregate condition (58%–71%) during the growing season of the studied crops of agronomically valuable aggregates (0.25–10 mm). However, the maximum content of structural aggregates (69%–71%) was evident with zero tillage by sowing safflower, spring barley, and Sudan grass. It indicates the excellent aggregate state of the soil under natural conditions with these crops. However, its minimum amount (58%) occurred with plowing (20–22 cm) under safflower. The water-resistant aggregate content was highest in no-tillage variants of the studied crops, varying between 17.6%–18.9%. With plowing, the water resistance of aggregates decreased to 13.1% under different crops. Over two years of research, the highest average yield of spring barley (2.42 t/ha) emerged with minimal tillage, while the lowest grain yield of Sudan grass (0.67 t/ha) came from plowing. As a result, the highest grain yields of spring barley, peas, and safflower emanated with minimal tillage, while in the Sudanese grass, with zero tillage.

Keywords: Conventional tillage, minimal tillage, no-tillage, soil structure, spring barley, peas, safflower, Sudan grass, crop yield

Key findings: The introduction of minimal tillage into production on the rainfed lands of Southeast Kazakhstan increased the grain yield of spring barley, peas, safflower, and Sudanese grass while preserving the supply of productive moisture in the soil. The formation of grain harvest largely depended on weather conditions during the growing season of the studied crops.

Coffea arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica’s coexistence in one location or proximity areas could promote interspecific pollination. However, information related to floral phenology and flower structure of these three coffee species is insufficient. This research aimed to identify the divergence of flowering phenology and flower morphometrics among C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica. Flowering phenology observations continued daily from July to October 2020, extending to two locations of parapatric populations of three coffee species. Flower morphometric measurements ensued at the peak period of flowering. The results showed some co-anthesis periods among the three coffee species, with C. liberica starting to flower early. Moreover, C. liberica var liberica had the broadest flower diameter and the highest petal number, whereas the tetraploid C. arabica had the lowest. Consequences of flowering phenology and flower structure on a pre-zygotic barrier of spontaneous, as well as, controlled interspecific hybridization among the three coffee species were the discussion focus.

Keywords: Coffea, interspecific crossing, flowering phenology, flower structure, pre-zygotic barrier

Key findings: Co-anthesis events occurred during the peak flowering periods in sympatric or parapatric populations of three coffee species (C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica). Therefore, interspecific hybridization using freshly collected pollen is feasible. These findings could enrich information on a pre-zygotic barrier among C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica species, especially in Indonesia. Breeders, in turn, could utilize the results to manage their future work on interspecific hybridization among these three coffee species.

Orchid mycorrhizal fungi (OMF) are vital biocontrol agents, especially for Odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV). The promising study helped identify the mycorrhiza isolate from native tropical orchids and determine its potential as a biocontrol. Sample collection of healthy roots of Phalaenopsis amabilis emanated in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, carrying out molecular identification with rDNA-ITS amplification using a set of universal primers ITS1 and ITS4. In vivo, antagonist tests began by inoculating viruses and mycorrhiza to determine the effect of growth and induction of secondary metabolites. The result showed one isolate of Trichoderma sp. associated with the molecular analysis has amplified the ITS1-5.8S-ITS4 section by 600–750 bp DNA. The sequenced products revealed insertion and substitution occurrences, which may have caused the variance by strain diversity and potential severity. Indonesian isolates have undergone speciation and separation from other isolates by a substantial distance. The considerable effects were the increase in leaf length, leaf width, root length, leaf count, the number of roots, fresh weight, and a lowering of the virus content. The analysis of the plant growth parameters and virus concentrations provided significant differences among the treatments inoculated with orchid mycorrhiza (Mycorrhiza [M], Mycorrhiza + Virus [MV], and Virus + Mycorrhiza [VM]) and those without orchid mycorrhiza inoculation (Control [C] and Virus [V]). The orchid resistance suggested that the virus infecting plant leaves contain more phenolic chemicals. This study is the first-ever report of the Trichoderma sp. isolated from native tropical orchids in Indonesia.

Keywords: Antagonistic test, biocontrol, orchid mycorrhiza fungi, Phalaenopsis amabilis, phenolic chemicals, rDNA-ITS

Key findings: Molecular characterization of mycorrhizal isolates on the roots of Phalaenopsis amabilis from Yogyakarta, Indonesia, based on rDNA-ITS has a DNA product size of 600–750 bp located on ITS1-5.8S-ITS4, which is a Trichoderma sp. The phylogenetic tree reconstruction showed the isolate has undergone speciation. The results of the mycorrhizal antagonist test against ORSV infection revealed considerable growth of leaf length, width, root length, number of leaves, root volume, fresh weight, and phenolic chemicals.

The diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) is one of the most severe pests for cruciferous crops. Its widespread distribution and the ability to submissive migration led to an unexpected enhancement in its population, thereby obscuring the control measures aimed at this phytophagous. The presented study sought to determine the expansion of diamondback moth in cruciferous crops (rapeseed, mustard) in two agroclimatic zones of Northern Kazakhstan (Zone I: moderately humid and warm; Zone II: slightly humid and moderately warm). Analysis of population dynamics ran for the long-term during 2012–2022 based on bioecological patterns of the diamondback moth and factors affecting them. Numerical variables of population density and abundance indices served as diagnostic predictors for characterizing the phase state of the pest in a given period and, therefore, recognizing the population dynamics pattern of the diamondback moth. Based on the results, the biological regularity of the stage inception of the phytophagous abundance dynamics does not always persevere, and variations occur with the sway of environmental factors. Hence, the abundance dynamics of diamondback moth depend upon the weather conditions of the previous and current year, as well as, on the accomplishment of the extent of chemical treatment and its regulations. The obtained data can be criteria for predicting the phase state of diamondback moth populations in the agroclimatic zones of northern Kazakhstan to justify and plan protective measures, as well as, to improve phytosanitary control.

Keywords: Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.), phytosanitary monitoring, population dynamics, abundance index, protective measures, agroclimatic zones, Northern Kazakhstan

Key findings: The presented findings can help in improving the phytosanitary monitoring and forecasting of the diamondback moth, as well as, justify effective protective measures during the transition from massive pesticide treatments to preventive pest population management.

A maize (Zea mays L.) field experiment conducted during the crop season 2022 at the Experimental Farm, Al-Mahnawiya, Extension Training Center, Babylon, Iraq, sought to evaluate the water stress tolerance of four maize cultivars under different irrigation regimes. The experiment used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a split-plot arrangement and three replications. Four irrigation treatments comprised the main plots: full irrigation (control), no irrigation during elongation (Gs-V7), no irrigation during grain-filling (Gs-R2), and no irrigation during elongation and grain-filling (Gs-V7+R2). The subplots included four maize cultivars: Furat, Dijlah, ZP, and Konsens. Leaf area decreased by 1873.76 cm² plant^-1 during the elongation stage (Gs-V7) due to non-irrigation. Non-irrigation during elongation (Gs-V7) and both elongation and grain-filling (Gs-V7+R2) reduced rows per ear, grains per row, and 500-grain weight at 11.65 and 11.02 rows ear^-1, 26.77 and 23.23 grains row^-1, and 54.90 and 63.94 g, respectively. Withholding irrigation during the elongation stage (Gs- V7), the filling (Gs-R2), and the elongation and filling phases all had decreased grain output. The lack of irrigation during the elongation stage (Gs-V7) boosted the ZmMYBE1 gene expression in vegetative phases. However, irrigation suppression did not impact the ZmMYBE1 gene expression in reproductive stages. The cultivar Furat had the most rows (17.58) and grains per row (37.58), and the cultivar Konsens had the maximum mean of 500-grain weight (84.36 g).

Keywords: Maize (Zea mays L.), irrigation regimes, cultivars, gene expression, water-stress tolerance, grain yield, yield-contributing traits

Key findings: The study demonstrated the stimulation of the ZmMYBE1 gene expression in response to water scarcity. The study also revealed significant differences among the maize cultivars based on their ability to withstand stress, as evidenced by grain yield variations and their components.

A field experiment set out during the winter of 2022–2023 availed one of the Holy Kerbala Governorate’s agricultural experimental fields. The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of some herbicides in controlling the wild radish weeds accompanying the wheat crop, as well as, diagnosing genetic mutations in the PDS gene responsible for resistance to herbicides in wild radish. The experiment employed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a split-plot arrangement and three replications. The main plots included five groups of wild radish seeds taken from five Iraqi Governorates, i.e., Najaf, Kerbala, Babel, Diwaniyah, and Wasit. The subplots contained four herbicides: Navigator, Tatsteler, Mark zone, and Decimate, in addition to the treatment of spraying with water only. Wild radish seeds serve for artificially infecting wheat seeds after field preparation. The study also measured wheat yield components, with the weeds appraised twice after 60 and 90 days of management. Genomic alterations in the PDS gene caused herbicide resistance in wild radish. The global herbicide-resistant cultivar has two missense mutations in codons 69 and 330 (TGT → TAT and CGT → GGT), encoding for Cys → Tyr and Arg → Gly. These alterations were identical in all weeds studied, but some Governorates had new mutations, such as, in the seeds of the Babylon Governorate’s weed. The evaluation of the efficiency of chemical pesticides comes after 60 and 90 days. Wild radish seeds in the targeted Governorates differed in all features. The herbicides Navigator and Decimate are vital in giving the best percentages of control and inhibition in wild radish weeds. Chemical herbicides have enhanced wheat production by eradicating weeds, specifically difficult ones. Genetic changes in wild radish weeds in wheat crops make some chemical herbicides less effective. Herbicide-resistant radish weed seeds are genetically mutated. Thus, herbicides can target gene variants and be diversified to prevent weed resistance.

Keywords: Triticum aestivum L., weeds resistance, gene inhibition PDS, chemical herbicide, Raphanus raphanistrum L.

Key findings: The Navigator herbicide eliminated wheat crop weeds better than other chemical herbicides, with 423.57 spike m², 15.09 tons ha^-1 biological yield, 5.83 tons ha^-1 grain yield, and 36.92 harvest index. Missense mutations in the target area make weeds herbicide-resistant.

In the presented study, isolation of bacterial strains, viz., Pantoea agglomerans, Priestia megaterium and phytopathogenic micromycetes that cause damage and eventually death of grape crops, came from a 10 to 15-year-old vine plantation. A Pantoea agglomerans gram-negative bacillus facultative and anaerobic bacterium strain achieved isolation from grape plants, with its morphological characteristics studied. Bacterial strains with antifungal activities against phytopathogenic micromycetes succeeded in their identification. Bacterial isolates collected from the vines underwent screening for their growth properties. It was apparent that Pantoea agglomerans actively grew wheat coleoptiles by 2.6 mm and maize coleoptiles by 2.3 mm compared with the control. Observable evidence also showed that sorghum coleoptile actively grew by 1.7 mm compared with the control treatment by 2.9 mm. The 26 Aspergillus sp., 23 Penicillium sp., 25 Fusarium sp., 30 Alternaria sp., and five Curvularia sp. phytopathogenic micromycetes belonging to the genus were notable. Bacterial strains isolated from the vine showed the highest antifungal activity against micromycetes belonging to the genus Penicillium and reduced the radius of phytopathogenic growth to 47–54 mm. Compared with micromycetes belonging to the genus Fusarium, it was also apparent that the pathogen reduced the growth radius to 27–35 mm. Isolation of phytopathogenic micromycetes from the vine allows early detection and prevention of grape diseases. Based on these studies, the identification of antifungal activity of the bacterial strains isolated from the vine and the presence of phytohormones in the culture fluid indicated that it is an essential and environmentally friendly biological tool in the cultivation of grapes for human consumption.

Keywords: Vitis vinifera L., grape, Pantoea agglomerans, Priestia megaterium, Lactobacillus plantarum, Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp., Curvularia sp., microflora, phytohormone, antagonist, phytopathogen

Key findings: Disease-spreading phytopathogenic micromycetes belonging to the genera Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Curvularia, and Aspergillus spp. reached identification from infected grape organoids in the territory of Uzbekistan. Strains of Priestia megaterium and Pantoea agglomerans isolated from healthy grapevine gained genetic recognition and showed high antifungal activity against grapevine phytopathogens.