Plant growth-promoting rhizospheric fungi (PGPRFs) are fungi mainly present in the soil rhizosphere. Through their mutual interaction with plants, these fungi provide a range of developmental benefits, yet some species of the fungi are harmful. The current study had nine fungi isolated, where five strains were from the rhizosphere and the remaining strains were from the bulk soil of maize (Zea mays L.). The research also tested maize seedlings against rhizospheric and bulk soil fungi. The Rhizo Brown and Bulk Gray have shown the highest growth rate compared to all other fungi. Association of isolates with host plants increased growth kinetics and biomass production, as measured by root length (36%), shoot length (37%), fresh weight (37%), dry weight (43%), and chlorophyll (67%) content. Besides, the association also promoted the biosynthesis of Indole Acetic Acid (46%) and Gibberellic acid (30%), improving the nutritional quality in maize. Results of the growth of the fungal strain on the agar plate indicated the absence of their antagonistic effect on each other’s growth. It was evident that combining both fungi can serve as bioinoculants to promote plant growth. The interaction between seeds and fungi confirmed the roots of the seedlings move toward the fungus, suggesting a beneficial plant-microbe interaction. Study results revealed that the rhizospheric and bulk soil fungi were plant growth-promoting fungi, improving agricultural productivity and are marketable for wider use in farming practices in Pakistan.

Keywords: Rhizosphere, bulk soil, maize (Z. mays L.), IAA (Indole-3-acetic acid), GA (gibberellic acid), nutritional quality, plant-microbe interaction

Key findings: The isolates of rhizospheric and bulk soil fungi promoted the growth of maize (Z. mays L.) seedlings by increasing root and shoot length, biomass, and chlorophyll content. These fungi also increased the production of plant hormones in maize and colonized its roots. The presented study identified these fungi as promising tools for promoting maize growth and potentially improving agricultural practices.

This research investigated the effects of bio-silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on proline content, peroxidase, and catalase enzyme activity of two Iraqi wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars (Ibaa 99 and Al-Rasheed) compared with NPK fertilizers. The biosynthesis of AgNPs from A. graveolens aqueous extract, and their characterization occurred through the alteration in color of the reaction blend, as an unambiguous proof for AgNPs’ formation. Determining the size and shape of AgNPs used a scanning microscope and an atomic force microscope to characterize them. Uv-spectrophotometer described the AgNPs, revealing the peak of highest absorption at (𝛌max) 408 nm. The X-Ray Diffraction device application diagnosed the AgNP properties. The research transpired at the AL-Nahrain Laboratories, where cultivated cultivars in September 2022 had three replications for each concentration of biosynthesized AgNPs and NPK treatments (0.1, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/ml), and a control for comparison. A significant decrease in proline was evident for Al-Rasheed cultivar, while a significant increase appeared in Ibaa 99 cultivar. A notable decrease in proline resulted from NPK fertilizer treatments. Peroxidase and catalase enzyme activity significantly rose in both cultivars, while nonsignificant differences were visible when using NPK between them.

Keywords: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), biofertilizers, silver nanoparticles, antioxidant enzymes activity, Apium graveolens L.

Key findings: In wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crops, the silver nanoparticles can be safe for use to improve the physiological and biochemical traits and replace the chemical fertilizers negatively affecting the soil and human health.

The revision of taxonomic information of genus Eragrostis Wolf in Iraq was this work’s aim, based on the literature and herbarium collections, such as BAG, BUE, BUH, BUNH, MOS, and SUH, as well as, field survey. Sixteen species enumerated had their spikelets and seed phenological characteristics, such as length, width, color, and shape, examined to isolate species. A taxonomic revision of the genus Eragrostis with an artificial key to species with phenology, national, and distribution data for all taxa, specimens examined, and photographs were available for easy identification. The results showed the species E. mossullensis has the longest spikelet uniqueness, E. cilianensis with a large width, and isolated species E. tremula identified with yellowish-brown to pink spikelets. The species E. mossullensis was superior with 38 seeds. The species E. ciliate was distinct with hairs. Notably, the present results, species E. aspera (Jacq.) Nees, E. atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. Ex Steud, E. basedowii Jedwabne, E. ciliate (Roxb.) Nees, E. poaeoides P.Beauv., Ess.Agrost., E. tenuifolia (A. Rich.) Hochst.ex Steud., E. tremula Hochst.ex Steud., and E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud., were not endemic. However, it is the first time for these reports to exist in Iraq.

Keywords: Eragrostis, Iraq monocot, seed Poaceae, spikelet, taxonomy

Key findings: Taxonomic revision of the genus Eragrostis’ spikelets and seeds occurred, wildly grown in Iraq. Based on the morphological and taxonomic traits, 16 different species attained enumeration with varied morphological characters.

Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) play a vital role as a global oilseed crop, but biotic and abiotic factors threaten their yield, especially in the context of climate change. One significant challenge is charcoal rot, a disease prevalent in tropical and subtropical climates. This disease causes stem lesions, leading to wilting and premature lodging, resulting in severe yield losses, ranging from 20% to 50%. Combating this issue led to introducing disease-resistant genes as a primary strategy. This study investigates the outcomes of incorporating charcoal-resistant lines into a breeding program. Four resistant inbred lines—’B-208′, ‘B-124’, ‘B-224’, and ‘B-112’—reached crossing with male fertility restorer lines, creating 16 half-sib cross combinations. These crosses showed varied levels of resistance to charcoal rot. Notably, the combinations ‘C.112’ × ‘RSIN.82’ and ‘C.208’ × ‘RH.344’ exhibited minor infestations and displayed negative heterosis, indicating a tendency toward complete to overdominance in resistance traits. The estimates of heterosis were modest, with a significant dominance variance relative to additive variance for disease resistance. Lines ‘B-112’, ‘B-208’, and ‘RSIN.82’ demonstrated strong general combining ability effects, suggesting their potential usefulness in breeding programs.

Keywords: dominance, fertility restorers, heterosis, infestation, symptoms

Key findings: The cross combinations with charcoal-resistant lines, particularly ‘C.112’ × ‘RSIN.82’ and ‘C.208’ × ‘RH.344’, showed considerable negative heterosis and a clear inclination toward complete and overdominance of resistance traits. The inheritance of charcoal rot resistance showed more dominance variance characteristic, significantly greater than the additive variance, emphasizing the importance of dominant genetic factors in providing disease resistance.

Katokkon chili (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is a unique chili plant belonging to the family of Solanaceae. This chili is one of the site-specific genetic resources found in Tana Toraja and North Toraja Regencies, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The presented research sought to determine the use of different 2,4-D (Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) concentrations for callus initiation and further in-vitro mutation breeding program, conducted at the Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia. The chili seeds’ germination occurred in sterile environment, with the hypocotyl part of the sprouts cut and placed on Murashige-Skoog (MS) medium containing 2,4-D concentrations (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 mg L^-1). The experimental layout was a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Results showed 2,4-D concentration 0.5 mg L^-1 had a significant effect on callus weight (24.23 mg), while concentration 1.5 mg L^-1 at the rate of callus appearance and callus formation proportion (6.73 days after culture and 86.7%, respectively). Overall, the callus colors were gray-yellow, yellow-white, orange-white, gray-white, and gray-brown, with friable texture. In addition, the callus was embryonic at concentrations 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mg L^-1. The next research plan is to explore the regeneration potential by analyzing somaclonal variation in the regenerated plants.

Keywords: Katokkon chili (Capsicum chinense), peppers, 2,4-D concentrations, callus, in-vitro mutation breeding

Key findings: In Katokkon chili (Capsicum chinense) plants, the tissue culture technology for using 2,4-D to stimulate callus formation originating from the chili hypocotyl is unknown. The presented study determined the most effective 2,4-D concentration to induce callus in chili katokkon hypocotyl derived from sterile sprouts for further in-vitro mutation breeding programs.

Tomato cultivation is restricted due to temperature extremes coupled with susceptibility to diseases, especially viruses. This leads to the erratic tomato availability in Pakistan. Breeding initiatives sought to overcome such problems, resulting in an indigenously developed indeterminate tomato hybrid named Sahara F₁ approved by the Punjab Seed Council for general cultivation during 2021. This hybrid is suitable for cultivation in virus conducive environment. The seedlings of this hybrid experienced raising under an insect net and transplanting in the open around the end of September during autumn, in contrast to previous practice of transplanting around the end of November. During the span of six years—from 2015-16 to 2020-21—various studies related to fruit yield, fruit nutrition, virology, pathology, and entomology ensued in virus prevailing conditions. Sahara F₁ proved itself better than the commercial hybrid in almost all respect, especially resistance against viral diseases. Moreover, its fruit shape, size, and shelf life are appealing for the consumers. The inclusion of the Sahara F₁ in the tomato production scenario of Pakistan will certainly help stabilize the supply and prices of tomato during the lean period.

Keywords: Solanum lycopersicum, autumn season, indeterminate, tomato hybrid, virus tolerant, scarcity

Key findings: Newly developed hybrid Sahara F₁ is superior for its performance during virus conducive environment than the existing commercial hybrids available in the market. Therefore, it could be helpful in tomato availability during scarcity period of Punjab (December–February).

The genetic diversity estimation in 10 maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes (Somar, Fajer1, Al maha, Baghdad-3, Al hajen nhren, DKC 6777, ZP.glorya, PIOWEE R, KWS, and Syngenta) grown in Iraq was this latest study’s aim. It used DNA markers based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The current study showed the results of molecular detection using the start codon targeted (SCoT) markers to assess the variation of 10 genotypes studied through the existence of single, multi-shapes, and unique packages. Even some primers showed a unique imprint of the genetic structures of maize plants. The synthesis comprised a genetic relationship tree of various genetic structures, constructed to estimate the genetic diversity between maize plants’ different genetic structures. They appeared in varying number and size of multiplier pieces and the efficiency of prefixes used to produce different DNA packages in the maize genome. This research employed DNA markers based on PCR to examine the genetic makeup of these maize cultivars. The study utilized various DNA markers, including those developed by SCoT and others, to examine the genetic variation among the studied maize genotypes. The presented study identified the presence of single, polymor

Keywords: Maize (Zea mays L.), DNA markers, maize cultivars, polymorphic, markers polymorphism (SCoT)

Key findings: The quantity and size of multiplier pieces as well as the efficiency of prefixes used to create different DNA packages in the maize genome determined the genetic variations estimation among the genotypes of maize (Zea mays L.).

Lily (Lilium candidum L.) is an herbaceous, bulbous perennial plant belonging to the family Liliaceae. Studying floral parts of the Lilium candidum had samples collected from different gardens in Baghdad City, Iraq. The Flora of Turkey helped identify the measurements of the floral parts studied. The results found that flowers form funnel shapes, with snow-white colored petals with pink spots in the middle. Flowers are fragrant, with actinomorphic symmetry. Flowers comprising six petals had a cyclic arrangement in biseriate perianth. Petals were lanceolate-linear to lanceolate-shaped and six stamens were opposite with petals and free, and the anthers were versatile that open longitudinally. The cross-section shape of the stigma was triangular, consisting of epidermis with one row of globular cells surrounded by cuticles. The cortex comprises two main types of cells, the collenchyma cells found below epidermis, and chlorenchyma. The vascular bundles closed in three collaterals, and each tissue corner arrangement consisted of xylem and phloem covered by bundle cup fibers at the phloem side. Anthers take on cordate shape in cross section, and the epidermis consists of one row with globular cells surrounded by cuticle. The cortex cell has two main types of cells. In the first type, the two layers of collenchyma cells appear below the epidermis, while the second type of cortex was the parenchymal cells. The pollen grains were golden-yellow, ellipsoid size, shaped in polar and equatorial views, with several apertures and reticulated exine sculpturing.

Keywords: Lily (L. candidum L.), Liliaceae, floral parts, petals, stamens, stigma

Key findings: Lily (L. candidum L.) plant samples collected had their floral parts assessed. Lilium candidum is famous for being edible and medicinal functions based on its biochemical composition and pharmacological effects.

Climate change caused drought stress to become a critical challenge in maize (Zea mays L.) production, surpassing other environmental stresses. Understanding drought resilience mechanisms in maize is essential for breeding drought-tolerant varieties. This study evaluated the drought tolerance of two maize hybrids, Sancia and Agrister, under greenhouse conditions with four irrigation regimes: 90%, 75%, 50%, and 25% of field capacity (FC). Under severe drought (25% FC), the hybrid Agrister showed reductions in shoot length, leaf area, biomass, and chlorophyll content by 13.9%, 29.86%, 30.76%, and 13.7%, respectively, compared with well-watered conditions (90% FC). In both hybrids, electrolytic conductivity increased under drought, indicating membrane stress. Agrister, however, maintained lower levels of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) than Sancia, signaling a better antioxidative balance. A higher catalase and peroxidase enzyme activity marked Agrister’s response to drought, alongside increased phenolic compounds, strengthening its antioxidant defense system. The study concludes that Agrister’s superior drought tolerance makes it a promising candidate for cultivation in Tunisia’s arid regions, highlighting its potential in breeding programs focused on resilience to water scarcity.

Keywords: Maize (Z. mays L.), drought stress, chlorophyll content, biochemical traits

Key findings: Maize (Z. mays L.) hybrid Agrister excelled the hybrid Sancia under water-deficit conditions and showed better development of aerial parts and a higher drought tolerance. The genetic variability between the two maize hybrids highlights the potential for breeding drought-resistant maize.

Drought and salinity are major environmental constraints that severely affect crop productivity. Plants frequently encounter these abiotic stresses, with salinity-drought combinations posing a significant threat to plant growth. Both stresses induce physiological, biochemical, morphological, and metabolic variations through various mechanisms, ultimately altering plant growth and productivity. Individual stress negatively influences plant growth, photosynthesis, ionic balance, and oxidative status, while integrated salinity-drought stress has a more synergistic effect. The severity caused by each stress varies depending on the plant species and existing environmental conditions. For instance, drought stress may have a more severe effect on photosynthesis compared with salinity, while salinity itself has a more detrimental effect on root biomass. A key difference between the individual and combined stress responses associated with antioxidant production. Plants exposed to individual stress can enhance their antioxidant levels. However, under combined salinity-drought stress, this vital defense mechanism appears compromised, leading to increased oxidative stress. The presented review highlighted the significant negative impact of integrated and individual salinity and drought stresses on plant growth. Understanding the multifaceted plant responses at various levels and the genetic base of plant tolerance to drought and salinity is essential for developing strategies to improve plant resistance to these stressors.

Keywords: Abiotic stress factors, drought, salinity, osmotic and oxidative stress, plant growth, photosynthesis

Key findings: Integrated salinity-drought stress has a more detrimental effect on plants compared with individual stress. The severity of drought and salinity stresses can vary depending on the plant species and environmental conditions. Plants exposed to individual stresses can increase their antioxidant levels, however, comprising this mechanism under combined salinity-drought pressure.