Lead nitrate has reports of significantly inhibiting plant growth. Early exploration of the genotypic difference for lead nitrate stress in tobacco has started. The presented study had eight tobacco genotypes subjected to 200 μM lead nitrate (Pb [NO₃]₂) stress in a hydroponic culture. Lead stress treatment to plants for 14 days had data recording at three times intervals of stressed plants. Assessing photosynthetic and antioxidant enzymes’ activities was in a time series order of one day, seven days, and 14 days. One-day, seven-day, and fourteen-day-old seedlings gained treatment of 200 μM lead nitrate stress and control. Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) values for most genotypes decreased, while oxidant and anti-oxidant enzymes increased activity. Chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, and total chlorophyll evaluated after lead nitrate toxicity showed reduced activity in studied tobacco genotypes compared with control as time passed. All chlorophyll contents, i.e., chlorophyll a, b, and total chlorophyll, declined with a longer span in lead nitrate solution. Genotype QVA-20 could benefit lead-salt tolerance and susceptible genotype ‘long chang’ cigarette based on chlorophyll content and SPAD values. Chlorophyll a capacity decreased as lead exposure to plants increased, but chlorophyll b increased in all genotypes on the 15th day. The MDA (malondialdehyde) content increased in all tobacco genotypes with increased lead nitrate exposure. Meanwhile, SOD (superoxide dismutase) contents decreased in genotypes RG-8, E1, and X6 with increased time, but POD (peroxidase) contents increased in all genotypes on the 14th day. Genotypes RG-8, E1, and X6 proved considerably tolerant of lead toxicity at 200 μM.

Keywords: Lead phytotoxicity, tobacco genotype, chloroplast ultrastructure, ceratophyllum demersum, aminolevulinate dehydrogenase

Key findings: The prevailing work reveals that genotype QVA260 exhibited tolerance to Pb stress as its SPAD value does not change significantly with time, followed by genotype E-1 and RG-11. Likewise, higher antioxidant enzyme activities disclosed the tolerance potential of QVA260, RG8, and E11.

A field experiment on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) with diverse levels of fertilization, carried out in the spring of 2022 in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with factorial arrangement, had three replications and two factors at the field of Ibn-Al-Bitar Vocational Preparatory School, District Al-Hussainiya, Kerbala, Iraq. The first factor comprised three sorghum cultivars (V1 = Al-Khair, V2 = Rabeh, and V3 = Bohuth-70), while the second was combinations of nitrogen and bio-fertilizers (F0 = recommended dose of N 320 kg ha^-1, F1 = 3/4 of the recommended amount of N with Azotobacter, F2 = 1/2 of the recommended dosage of N + Aotobacter, F3 = 1/4 of the recommended dose of N + Azotobacter, and F4 = Azotobacter + No nitrogen fertilizer). The results showed that the sorghum cultivar Bohuth-70 was significantly superior for enhanced plant height (204.63 cm), number of leaves plant^-1 (9.807), 1000-grain weight (35.27 g), and the grain yield (6.192 Mg.ha^-1). However, cultivar Al-Khair produced the highest mean leaf area (4,929 cm²) and grains per head (4,428 grains.head^-1). Cultivar Rabeh excelled in performance, with the highest mean value for stem diameter (24.67 mm) and head length (31.29 cm). The F0 treatment recommended dose of N 320 kg ha^-1 was considerably superior in the number of leaves (9.867 leaves plant^-1), stem diameter (24.8 mm), and grain yield (6.145 Mg.ha^-1). The F1 treatment of 3/4 of the recommended dose of N with Aotobacter excelled in plant height (166.57 cm), leaf area (4,936 cm²), and number of grains (3,916 grain head^-1). However, the F2 treatment 1/2 of the recommended dose of N + Aotobacter was notably superior in head length (30.18 cm) and 1000-grain weight (29.93 grains). As for the interaction, the sorghum cultivar Bohuth-70 with F0 treatment excelled in the number of leaves plant^-1 (10.33 leaves) and the grain yield (7.157 Mg.ha^-1), while the cultivar Al-Khair with F1 treatment excelled in stem diameter (26.70 mm) and leaf area (5,164 cm²).

Keywords: Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), cultivars, nitrogen fertilizer, biofertilizer, growth and yield, Azotobacter

Key findings: Nitrogen and biofertilizer (Azotobacter) significantly affected the growth and yield traits. The studied cultivars also showed varied responses to various fertilization levels. It might be possible to reduce chemical fertilizers and replace them with biofertilizers.

The presented research, comprising characterization of nine species of the wild rose (Rosa L.), came from various regions of Northern Iraq. The study proceeded in 2021–2022 at the College of Education of Pure Science, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq. Employing the random amplification polymorphism DNA (RAPD) helped determine the genetic variation relationships among the species using the statistical program Numerical Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System (NTSYSpc 2.02). The use of 10 random primers attained amplifications observed with agarose gel electrophoresis. The RAPD primers generated 523 random bands, making it possible to separate Rosa species from each other. Among the studied species, the genetic distance ranged from 0.067 to 1.027. The least genetic dimension (0.067) came from the species Rosa canina var. deseglisei and Rosa canina var. canina, with the highest genetic breadth reaching 1.027 between Rosa x centifolia and Rosa foetida. The dendrogram revealed three main clusters based on the genetic distance values, with the third one getting split into three distinct groups. RAPD proved as an effective method for studying the relatedness among the species.

Keywords: molecular study, Rosa, Rosaceae, RAPD markers, genetic distance, multivariate analysis, species association

Key findings: Molecular diagnosis using RAPD-PCR indicators helped identify and distinguish the nine species of the genus Rosa (Rosaceae) growing in Northern Iraq. Based on the similarities and genetic differences among the species, the RAPD primers generated 523 random bands for the possible separation of Rosa species from each other. Among the species, the genetic distance ranged from 0.067 to 1.027.

Microalgae reckon one of the most promising organisms due to their numerous applications in biotechnology, such as, their biomass utilization to extract various primary and secondary metabolites. These compounds benefit the food and pharmaceutical industries and the energy field, such as, biofuel and hydrogen gas production. Therefore, it is necessary to find various sustainable ways to actively preserve the isolates and productive strains with purity for an extended period without affecting their genetic characteristics and productive ability to grow and regenerate. The latest study aimed to compress several microalgae to form alginate beads using sodium alginate with five types of pure algal cultures, i.e., Scenedesmus quadricauda, Scenedesmus dimorphus, Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorococcum humicola, and Chlamydomonas sp. The vitality and activity of all the strains studied through the storage period showed the success of preparing alginate beads and staying viable for 18 months at 4 °C in the refrigerator under dark conditions. Therefore, encapsulating microalgae with sodium alginate is a possible and helpful method for preserving algae isolates for a prolonged period in a pure form. The survival of algae in alginate beads is an essential step to apply in the future as one of the viable methods to preserve pure algae isolates for a long time.

Keywords: Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Chlorococcum, Chlamydomonas, microalgae, alginate bead, sodium alginate, long-term storage

Key findings: Encapsulating microalgae with sodium alginate is a possible and valuable method for preserving algae isolates for a long time in a pure form. The process successfully prepared alginate beads and stayed viable for 18 months at 4 °C in the refrigerator under dark conditions.

Trifolium incarnatum L. is a new species grown in America, Europe, and Iraq. The novel study described the plant parts based on morphological characteristics like root, stem, leaflet, and flower. The annual plant is erect, 20–70 cm tall, unbranched from the base, with stipules membranous oblong-lanceolate, leaflet cuneate, obovate, and broadly retuse, otherwise rounded or truncate, and the leaflet-shaped ovate-cordate, with hairy margins, leaflet petiolate, and pedunculate (5 cm). Its inflorescences are mostly terminal oblong, 1.8 cm in diameter and 4 to 7.5 cm in length, and flower peduncles. The pollen grain’s analysis through the scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed monad, symmetrical, isopolar, zono-colporate, and tri-porate. The leaflet anatomy displayed many features and recorded differences between upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) epidermis in shape, size, and stomatal complex. The species was amphistomatic and had many types of stomatal complex, i.e., Anomocytic, Anisocytic, Paracytic, and Actinocytic. The number of stomata within the microscopic field was 56–65 and 32–38 on the upper and lower surfaces, respectively, with occurring crosssections in the leaflet and stem. The results showed the frond in a cross-section unifacial, the palisade tissue at two-three layers with a thickness of 82–100 μm, spongy tissue (62–70 μm), and the vascular bundle almost present in the central vein. The calcium oxalate crystals, especially prismatic crystals, lined along the veins, and the stem cross-section was a sub-triangle-circle–ovate, with three ovate closed vascular bundle sheaths distributed into three directions, with two facing each other.

Keywords: Trifolium incarnatum L., anatomy, morphological traits, root, stem, SEM pollen grains

Key findings: The unique study identified the morphological and anatomical traits and micromorphological characteristics of the pollen grains for Trifolium incarnatus L., cultivated as a new species in Iraq.

Greenhouses have become widespread structures that create an ideal microclimate for growing crops worldwide. A greenhouse is a structure that allows people to regulate climatic conditions, such as, temperature and humidity. There are many different designs of greenhouses, but generally, these buildings include large areas of transparent material to capture the light and heat of the sun. They also offer protection from unfavorable weather conditions and pests, providing a popular solution for crop production worldwide, including Iraq, which uses alternative energy sources for climate control. Using machine learning models has helped design different greenhouse types; however, their ability to predict costs and designs based on features is yet to exist. Therefore, to address these issues, this study aimed to develop cost-effective and user-friendly greenhouse systems through two different approaches: Firstly, the use of random forests (RFs) model with the highest precision (0.99) formulated the cost of the greenhouse for new input data to calculate a greenhouse cost estimate based on the system’s performance as a benchmark while selecting the greenhouse’s features through training and testing, and secondly, the use of the farmer’s desired price as a basis for developing a greenhouse design. This scientific approach will enable the farming community to manage the costs of various aspects, such as, building materials, energy sources, climate control devices, water and fertilizer delivery, growing substrates, internal logistics, and labor. The presented research will provide farmers with a practical basis that also considers the constraints, i.e., the economy, climate, law, market, and resource availability. It will empower the farmers to make the right decisions regarding greenhouse systems with their specific requirements and circumstances.

Keywords: Greenhouse systems, agriculture engineering, greenhouse designs, climatic conditions, controlled environment, computer engineering

Key findings: With a package of verified information, the farming community can manage the costs of various aspects, such as, building materials, energy sources, and climate control devices. It will aid them in making the right decisions regarding greenhouse systems that suit their specific circumstances.

The conduct of a field trial in the 2021–2022 cropping season assessed the economic feasibility and effect of using locally produced microbial biofertilizers on the growth and yield traits of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The manures of Providencia vermicola, Alcaligenes faecalis, and Raoultella planticola served as sample treatments in the study. The research was in a randomized complete block design at the Agricultural Experiment and Research Station (31°20′19″N 45°17′20″E), College of Agriculture, Al-Muthanna University, Iraq. Microbial fertilizers were the first factor, with the second factor comprising two levels of mineral fertilizers, i.e., a) no chemical fertilizer and b) using half of the recommended chemical fertilizer, addressing the interactions between biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers, having a two-factor experiment. Field results showed that triple biofertilization consisting of A. faecalis, R. planticola, and P. vermicola proved superior based on grain yield and biomass using half of the recommended fertilizer (P7) (8.038 t ha^-1 and 24.938 t ha^-1). In turn, the economic analysis results were consistent with the technical outcomes, as treatment P7 recorded the highest profit amounting to USD 483.625 ha^-1. In addition to recording the highest revenue per ha at the rate of 6.2477, treatment P7 for the level of fertilization F1 recorded the maximum level, amounting to about USD 144.284, 165,298.65, and 48,362.5 ha^-1 for the criteria of the invested USD return, productive profitability, and added value, respectively.

Keywords: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), Alcaligenes faecalis, Raoultella planticola, chemical fertilizers, growth and yield traits, economic return

Key findings: The results showed that the treatment P7 verified superior for biological and grain yield (24.938 Mg ha^-1 and 8.038 Mg ha^-1, respectively). In turn, the economic results were consistent with the technical outcomes, with the treatment P7 recorded with the highest profit, amounting to USD 7157.6486 ha^-1, aside from having the highest yield per ha at a rate of 9.2466 Mg ha^-1. The F1 enrichment provided the maximum level for other criteria, reaching about USD 31. 60406, 24,464.21, and 7157.649 per Ha^-1 for the investment return, productive profitability, and added value, respectively.

A high-quality feed base is a must to ensure the growing of numerous animals via selecting promising high-yielding crops that can provide livestock with feeds at the entire production stage. This study purposed to develop new technologies for reinstating a balanced use of pastures in Kazakhstan’s steppe and forest-steppe zones. Several investigations succeeded in 2019–2022 at the Service-ZHARS Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) production fields of District Kyzylzhar, North Kazakhstan. Five chosen pasture combinations created multifactor pasture lands, as follows: common alfalfa + Festulolium; awnless brome + yellow sweet clover; common alfalfa + pasture ryegrass + Festulolium; white sweet clover + awnless brome + Timothy grass, and sainfoin + Festulolium + pasture ryegrass + Timothy grass. For haymaking and pasture chain construction, the following grass combinations selected comprised two-pasture grasses (previous years’ brome and Timothy grass + common alfalfa + sainfoin) and seven hay grasses (vetch + oats, Sudan grass, sorghum-Sudan grass hybrid + sorghum, corn for silage, sorghum, peas + oats + barley + wheat, and peas). The use of droughtresistant legumes, cereals, and arable crops and their mixtures positively impacted intensifying the feed base and reducing the pasture areas’ degradation. Thus, in the first experiment, the green mass collection was higher than 3.33 t ha^-1, while in the second one, it was below 4.75 t ha^-1, which fully bestowed the physiological needs of animals. The species diversity of pasture vegetation has improved because of beans’ inclusion, possibly enhancing the protein ratio in green feed and hay as the main component of the farm animals’ diet.

Keywords: Feed production, hay and pasture chain, mixed crops, nutritional value, rational use of pastures, yield of green mass

Key findings: Being drought-resistant and high-yielding, the selected promising cultivars of the various feed crops proved suitable for improving hayfields and pastures and creating a hay-pasture chain.

Faisalabad industrial units discharge effluents and associated toxic chemicals into the environment, deteriorating ecological conditions and ecosystem health. Morphoanatomical changes in some medicinally important native species (Calotropis procera, Eclipta alba, Phyla nodiflora, and Ranunculus sceleratus) exposed to heavy industrial pollution gained evaluation. These species of choice were due to their widespread distribution in the area. Ten sites selected in the River Chenab, Chiniot, had three near point source pollution of Faisalabad industries within the 500-m radius (polluted) at three drains and two sites inside the river after each drain point source with the control site at 14 km after from the first industrial drain point source. The general response of all plants to effluents was growth retardation. Plant height increased significantly in all species from river sites. An increase in tallness was more prominent in species like C. procera and P. nodiflora. An increase in stem sclerification in C. procera and E. alba from polluted sites occurred, which indicated a better ability to tolerate industrial pollution. Remarkable increases in stem and leaf epidermis, intensive stem sclerenchyma, and closely packed stem vascular bundles in C. procera appeared, which could increase resistance to industrial pollution. Most of the morphoanatomical parameters notably attained a decrease in E. alba, the most vulnerable species. Plant survival depends on particular structural changes in dermal, mechanical, parenchymatous, and vascular tissues. Overall, industrial pollution adversely impacts plant morphological and micromorphological features, although the reaction of specific species to industrial contamination varies. The study determined that stem and leaf anatomical features, such as, epidermis size and storage tissue thickness, are suitable morphoanatomical markers for industrial pollution biomonitoring. Internal modifications of plants vegetating different industrial contaminated sites played a significant role in high tolerance levels.

Keywords: Industrial pollution, leaf lamina thickness, metaxylem, micromorphology, plant height, sclerification

Key findings: The riparian flora differed significantly across seasons and sites, with substantial micromorphological and anatomical differences. The impact of industrial pollution on the chosen species varied in terms of morphoanatomical parameters.

Avena sativa L. is a quick-growing, highly nutritious fodder of cool climates, grown for various purposes, and can meet feed demands in scarce periods. The study aimed to identify potential genotypes that offer higher fodder yields. Over three years (2018–2020), 225 genotypes collected from the USDA and FRI were analyzed for genetic diversity based on morphological and yield-related characteristics. The experiments followed an alpha lattice design, with data recorded before panicle emergence. The assessment revealed significant genetic variability among the accessions for the studied traits. The principal component analysis demonstrated that three primary components explained the bulk of the total variability each year. Genotypes with high green fodder yield, tillers per plant, leaves per plant, and plant height acquired positions in the right quadrants of the biplots for 2018 and 2020. Positive correlations observed between tillers per plant and leaves per plant and among plant height, tillers per plant, leaves per plant, and green fodder yield. Exotic and local genotypes were widely distributed across all four quadrants, indicating substantial genetic diversity. The cluster analysis classified 225 oat genotypes into 10 groups based on phenotypic characteristics. Clusters II, VIII, IX, and X displayed higher mean values for most studied traits. Clusters with maximum inter-cluster distances, such as Clusters II and X in 2018, I and X in 2019, and III and VIII in 2020, could be useful in future hybridization programs. Genotypes 198 (Mustang) and 219 (Boppy) provided superior fodder yield than standard checks. These genotypes need further evaluation in different locations for sustainable performance and recommendations for general cultivation.

Keywords: Avena sativa, morphology, diversity, PCA, cluster analysis

Key findings: Oat genotypes have rich genetic diversity, evident from the dispersal of exotic and local genotypes in biplot quadrants. PCA revealed that tillers per plant and leaves per plant were the major source of variation, followed by plant height. Based on the higher mean values for traits, genotypes from Clusters II, VIII, IX, and X can benefit future hybridization programs.